DƆNÙESÈ Data Center / Women’s Rights Laws by Country / Egypt
North Africa · Country law profile
Egypt: women’s rights and civic space laws
Egypt’s 2014 Constitution, amended in 2019, commits the state to equality between women and men and reserves at least a quarter of seats in the House of Representatives for women. Penal Code reforms have made sexual harassment and female genital mutilation serious crimes, and the minimum age of marriage is 18. Egypt still has no comprehensive law on violence against women, marital rape is not a crime, and personal status laws keep polygamy and unilateral male divorce; a new family law bill has been before parliament since May 2026. Egypt has neither signed nor ratified the Maputo Protocol, and CIVICUS rates its civic space as closed.
At a glance
| Capital | Cairo |
|---|---|
| Legal system | Civil law system influenced by French law, with Islamic Sharia as the principal source of legislation and religion-based personal status laws for family matters |
| Official languages | Arabic |
Key indicators
18 for girls and boysMinimum legal age of marriage (2008)
16% (2% before 15)Child marriage rate (% of women married before 18)
26.8% (160 of 596 members)Women in parliament (% House of Representatives) (2025)
Nearly 9 in 10FGM prevalence (women and girls aged 15 to 49) (2021)
83%Share of FGM performed by medical personnel (2021)
50.6 / 100World Bank Women, Business and the Law 1.0 index (2024)
37.5 / 100World Bank Women, Business and the Law 2.0 legal frameworks (2024)
Regional and international treaties
| Treaty | Status | Reservations or notes |
|---|---|---|
| Maputo Protocol | Neither signed nor ratified (Egypt and Morocco are the only AU members in this position, per Amnesty International, August 2025) | |
| CEDAW | Ratified 1981 | Reservations to Articles 2, 16 and 29(2); the reservation to Article 9(2) was withdrawn in 2004. In 2021 the CEDAW Committee asked Egypt to set a timeline to withdraw its reservations to Articles 2 and 16. |
| CEDAW Optional Protocol | Not ratified; the CEDAW Committee encouraged ratification in 2021 | |
| ILO C190 Violence and Harassment Convention | Not ratified; the CEDAW Committee recommended ratification in 2021 |
Constitution
| Constitution | Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 2014, as amended in 2019 |
|---|---|
| Equality guarantees | Article 11 commits the state to equality between women and men in all civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, and to protecting women against all forms of violence. Article 53 makes all citizens equal before the law without discrimination on grounds including sex, and makes discrimination a crime. Article 9 guarantees equal opportunities for all citizens. |
| Quotas or parity | Article 102 (amended 2019) allocates at least one quarter of House of Representatives seats to women. Article 180 reserves one quarter of local council seats for women. |
National laws
Gender-based and domestic violence
No comprehensive law on violence against women; general assault provisions of the Penal Code (Law No. 58 of 1937)
Domestic violence can only be prosecuted under general assault provisions of the Penal Code.
Gaps: Article 60 of the Penal Code (acts done in good faith under a right recognised by Sharia) is still interpreted as allowing ‘disciplinary’ violence against wives, and Article 17 lets judges reduce sentences. The Ministry of Social Solidarity reports only 8 women’s shelters. The CEDAW Committee asked Egypt in 2021 to adopt a comprehensive law and to repeal these provisions.
Rape and sexual offences
Penal Code (Law No. 58 of 1937), Articles 267 and 268
Article 267 criminalises sexual intercourse with a woman without her consent, with penalties up to life imprisonment or death; Article 268 covers indecent assault.
Gaps: Marital rape is not a crime under Egyptian law. Equality Now and the CEDAW Committee call for its explicit criminalisation.
Source: arabstates.unfpa.org, equalitynow.org
Sexual harassment
Penal Code Articles 306 bis (a) and 306 bis (b), introduced by Law No. 50 of 2014 and amended by Law No. 141 of 2021
The 2014 law defined and criminalised sexual harassment for the first time. The 2021 amendment made it a felony punishable by 2 to 4 years in prison, with heavier minimum sentences in aggravated cases such as when the offender has authority over the victim, and refers explicitly to the workplace.
Gaps: Survivors face long trials and social stigma, according to TIMEP.
Female genital mutilation
Penal Code Article 242 bis (introduced 2008), amended by Law No. 78 of 2016 and again in April 2021
FGM has been a felony since 2016, with 5 to 7 years in prison and heavier sentences where it causes permanent disability or death; Article 242 bis (a) punishes anyone who requests FGM. The 2021 amendment raised penalties further, especially for medical professionals.
Gaps: Medicalised FGM remains common, and Article 17 has been used to reduce sentences for doctors. EIPR warns that harsher penalties discourage families from reporting complications.
Child marriage and age of marriage
Child Law No. 12 of 1996 as amended by Law No. 126 of 2008; Civil Status Law No. 143 of 1994, Article 31 bis
Sets 18 as the minimum age of marriage and bars registration of marriages below that age.
Gaps: Families hold religious or customary (urfi) ceremonies before 18 and register the marriage later. A draft law to criminalise child marriage approved by the Cabinet in June 2022 had not been promulgated by December 2023.
Harmful practices
Penal Code (Law No. 58 of 1937), Article 237
Gives a reduced penalty of up to 3 years to a husband who kills his wife on catching her in adultery.
Gaps: The CEDAW Committee asked Egypt in 2021 to repeal provisions allowing leniency for so-called honour crimes.
Family and personal status
Personal Status Laws No. 25 of 1920 and No. 25 of 1929 (amended by Law No. 100 of 1985), Law No. 1 of 2000 and Law No. 4 of 2005
Govern marriage, divorce, maintenance and custody for Muslims. Law No. 1 of 2000 allows women to obtain a no-fault divorce (khul) by giving up financial rights; mothers keep custody until the child turns 15.
Gaps: Polygamy is lawful, husbands keep unilateral divorce, guardianship stays with fathers and obedience (taa) provisions still apply. The CEDAW Committee called in 2021 for prohibiting polygamy and for equal divorce and guardianship rights.
Inheritance and succession
Inheritance Law No. 77 of 1943, as amended by Law No. 219 of 2017
The 2017 amendment added Article 49, punishing anyone who deprives an heir of their share with at least 6 months in prison and a fine of up to EGP 100,000.
Gaps: Daughters still inherit half the share of sons. Equality Now calls for removing gender-based differences in shares.
Abortion and sexual and reproductive health
Penal Code (Law No. 58 of 1937), Articles 260 to 264
Criminalise abortion, including for the woman herself, with heavier penalties for medical professionals.
Gaps: No express legal ground exists; the Physicians’ Code of Ethics allows abortion only when the woman’s life or health is at risk. The CEDAW Committee recommended in 2021 legalising abortion in cases of rape, incest, risk to the woman’s health and severe foetal impairment.
Girls’ education
Constitution of 2014 (amended 2019), Article 19
Makes education compulsory until the end of the secondary stage or its equivalent.
Source: constituteproject.org
Political participation and quotas
Constitution of 2014 (amended 2019), Articles 102 and 180
Reserve at least a quarter of House of Representatives seats and a quarter of local council seats for women. Women held 26.8% of House seats after the 2025 elections.
Gaps: The CEDAW Committee asked in 2021 for further temporary special measures in the judiciary, public administration and local councils.
Labour and maternity
Labour Law No. 14 of 2025 (in force 1 September 2025, replacing Law No. 12 of 2003)
Gives 4 months of paid maternity leave up to three times during employment, unpaid childcare leave of up to 2 years, reduced hours from the sixth month of pregnancy and a new paternity leave day. It adds rules on sexual harassment and workplace violence.
Gaps: The CEDAW Committee asked Egypt in 2021 to enforce equal pay and to ratify ILO Convention 190 along with the ILO conventions on maternity protection and family responsibilities.
Labour and maternity
Civil Service Law of 2016
Gives public sector employees 4 months of maternity leave.
Source: egypt.unwomen.org
Social protection
Social Insurance and Pensions Law No. 148 of 2019
Consolidates the social insurance and pension system; the Takaful and Karama cash transfer programme, whose beneficiaries are about 75% women according to World Bank data, operates alongside it.
Source: natlex.ilo.org, arab-reform.net
Nationality
Nationality Law No. 26 of 1975, as amended by Law No. 154 of 2004
Egyptian mothers can pass nationality to their children; Article 6 of the Constitution recognises nationality through an Egyptian father or mother.
Gaps: Women cannot pass nationality to foreign spouses on equal terms with men, and delays affect children born before 2004. The CEDAW Committee asked Egypt in 2021 to remove these obstacles.
Trafficking
Law No. 64 of 2010 on Combating Human Trafficking
Criminalises trafficking in persons with 3 to 15 years in prison and fines.
Gaps: The CEDAW Committee raised in 2021 the use of temporary, seasonal and contractual marriages of poor rural girls as a form of trafficking, and called for more specialised shelters.
Access to justice and legal aid
Law No. 177 of 2020 amending the Code of Criminal Procedure (Article 113 bis)
Lets investigators keep the identity of victims of sexual violence and harassment confidential.
Gaps: Protection depends on the discretion of the judge. Equality Now calls for a state-funded, gender-sensitive legal aid system.
Access to justice and legal aid
Law No. 10 of 2004 establishing Family Courts
Created specialised family courts for personal status disputes.
Online violence and cybercrime
Anti-Cyber and Information Technology Crimes Law No. 175 of 2018
Article 25 punishes publishing information that violates a person’s privacy and Article 26 punishes linking a person’s data to abusive content, which can cover non-consensual image sharing.
Gaps: Article 25 also punishes infringing ‘family principles or values’. Between July and August 2025 at least 19 women content creators were arrested or prosecuted under such provisions, according to HRW.
Data protection
Personal Data Protection Law No. 151 of 2020
Regulates personal data processing under the Personal Data Protection Center; its executive regulations were issued by Ministerial Decree No. 816 of 2025.
Source: bakermckenzie.com
Older persons
Law No. 19 of 2024 on the care of older persons
Enacted on 4 April 2024, it protects people aged 65 and over against age discrimination and grants benefits such as transport and fee reductions, with penalties for violations.
Gaps: It has no provisions specific to older women.
Source: riad-riad.com
Women and girls with disabilities
Law No. 10 of 2018 on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Covers health, education, accessibility and social protection, and requires employers with 20 or more staff to reserve 5% of jobs for persons with disabilities.
Gaps: It has no provisions specific to women and girls with disabilities and lacks enforcement mechanisms.
Source: webapps.ilo.org, sjdr.se
Human rights defenders
Law No. 149 of 2019 Regulating the Exercise of Civil Work, with Executive Regulations of 2021
Governs associations and foundations and controls foreign and domestic funding.
Gaps: Restricts political and union activity. Egypt has no law protecting human rights defenders, and counter-terrorism laws are used against activists and defenders.
Source: icnl.org, digitallibrary.un.org
Vulnerable Groups
Law No. 10 of 1961 on Combating Prostitution (debauchery provisions)
Consensual same-sex relations are not explicitly criminalised, though the debauchery provisions of this law are used to prosecute LGBT people.
Gaps: The UN Human Rights Committee raised convictions under this law in 2023.
Civic space
| CIVICUS Monitor rating | Closed (score 18/100), unchanged since 2018 |
|---|---|
| NGO and association law | Law No. 149 of 2019 Regulating the Exercise of Civil Work and its 2021 Executive Regulations |
| Press and media law | Law No. 180 of 2018 on the Press, Media and the Supreme Council for Media Regulation, which criminalises ‘fake news’ including by social media users with 5,000 or more followers |
| Cybercrime law | Anti-Cyber and Information Technology Crimes Law No. 175 of 2018 |
| Public order and counter-terrorism | Law No. 107 of 2013 on public meetings and demonstrations; Counter-Terrorism Law No. 94 of 2015 |
| Notes | CIVICUS reported in February 2026 that authorities pursue retaliatory cases against activists and pro-Palestine demonstrators. A new Code of Criminal Procedure was issued in November 2025 and takes effect on 1 October 2026, after the President returned an earlier draft to parliament in September 2025 following civil society criticism. |
Recent developments
- April 2024. Law No. 19 of 2024 on the care of older persons was enacted.
- 28 January 2025. Egypt underwent its fourth Universal Periodic Review and received more than 370 recommendations.
- July to August 2025. Authorities arrested or prosecuted at least 37 online content creators, at least 19 of them women, using the cybercrime law and morality charges.
- 1 September 2025. Labour Law No. 14 of 2025 entered into force, extending maternity leave to 4 months.
- November 2025. Equality Now and partners submitted a shadow report to the African Commission on Egypt’s 18th and 19th periodic reports.
- November 2025. A new Code of Criminal Procedure was issued, to take effect on 1 October 2026.
- November to December 2025. House of Representatives elections were held; women now hold 160 of 596 seats (26.8%).
- May 2026. The government referred draft personal status laws for Muslims and Christians to the House of Representatives.
Reforms recommended
Reforms recommended by the African Commission, UN treaty bodies or national organisations, as reported in the sources below.
- Adopt a comprehensive law on violence against women that criminalises domestic violence and marital rape, and repeal Penal Code Articles 17, 60, 237, 274 and 277 as they apply to violence against women (CEDAW 2021, Equality Now 2025).
- Use the 2026 personal status reform to prohibit polygamy and give women equal rights in divorce and guardianship, and repeal the obedience provisions.
- Allow Egyptian women to pass nationality to foreign spouses on equal terms with men.
- Legalise abortion at least in cases of rape, incest, risk to the woman’s health and severe foetal impairment.
- Sign and ratify the Maputo Protocol and the CEDAW Optional Protocol, and withdraw the reservations to CEDAW Articles 2 and 16.
Being verified. RFLD is checking the laws on the following topics against official texts and will add them to this page: land and property. Corrections and documents are welcome at programs@rflgd.org.
African Union treaties
Status of 29 African Union treaties as recorded in the official AU status lists published by the African Union Commission. The date of each list is shown: a ratification deposited after that date may not appear yet. 5 of the 13 human rights and governance treaties below are ratified.
| AU treaty | Status | AU list dated |
|---|---|---|
| Maputo Protocol (rights of women) | Not signed | 19/09/2023 |
| African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights | Ratified 20/03/1984 | 15/06/2017 |
| African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child | Ratified 09/05/2001 | 14/02/2023 |
| Protocol establishing the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights | Signed 1999, not ratified | 14/02/2023 |
| African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance | Not signed | 08/07/2024 |
| AU Convention on Ending Violence against Women and Girls | Not signed | 22/05/2026 |
| Protocol on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities | Not signed | 22/05/2026 |
| Protocol on the Rights of Older Persons | Not signed | 22/05/2026 |
| Protocol on Social Protection and Social Security | Not signed | 22/05/2026 |
| African Youth Charter | Ratified 09/03/2015 | 19/09/2023 |
| OAU Refugee Convention | Ratified 12/06/1980 | 16/05/2019 |
| AU Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption | Ratified 08/07/2017 | 14/02/2023 |
| AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection (Malabo) | Not signed | 02/02/2026 |
Other AU treaties (16)
Sources (41)
- girlsnotbrides.org · egypt
- equalitynow.org · Shadow Report Egypt ACHPR 2025.docx
- data.ipu.org · data on women
- data.ipu.org · EG LC01 E20251110
- unicef.org · Egypt
- wbl.worldbank.org · WBL2024 Economy Scores
- amnesty.org · car maputo protocol womens rights
- eipr.org · global day action access safe abortion egyptian government s…
- arabstates.unfpa.org · Egypt%20Country%20Assessment%20 %20English 0
- digitallibrary.un.org · CEDAW C EGY CO 8 10 ES
- constitutions.unwomen.org · egypt
- constituteproject.org · Egypt 2019
- equalitynow.org · egypt shadow report 2025 legal commitments to gender equalit…
- nwrcegypt.org · CEDAW submission CEWLA NWF EIPR
- egypt.unwomen.org · en
- timep.org · sexual harassment laws in egypt does stricter mean more effe…
- eipr.eipr.org · amending fgm law parliament must listen warnings civil socie…
- dspace.id.com.eg · c3e73a57 81ac 4ecc 9e23 8c9b54076c20
- english.legal-agenda.com · egypt denying women inheritance is a crime subject to impris…
- ey.com · egypt enacts new labor law with changes affecting employers …
- clydeco.com · egypt new labour law
- natlex.ilo.org · details
- arab-reform.net · egypts takaful and karama program caught between reality and…
- powerlaw.africa · egyptian parliament approves law to protect the identity of …
- carnegieendowment.org · the politics of personal status law in egypt and iraq
- cybercrime-fr.org · Egyptian cybercrime law
- hrw.org · egypt mass crackdown targets online content creators
- icnl.org · egypt
- bakermckenzie.com · egypt important data protection update
- riad-riad.com · new elderly care law a comprehensive framework for protectin…
- webapps.ilo.org · natlex4.detail
- sjdr.se · sjdr.1357
- hrw.org · egypt security forces abuse torture lgbt people
- ohchr.org · dialogue egypt experts human rights committee commend measur…
- monitor.civicus.org · egypt
- hrw.org · egypt president rejects flawed criminal code
- tamimi.com · egypts new criminal procedures law a landmark reform taking …
- hrw.org · egypt un review spotlights key rights concerns
- manassa.news · 31953
- jurist.org · egypt dispatch historic overhaul of personal status laws spa…
- ohchr.org · cedawcegyco8 10 concluding observations combined eighth tent…
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Information verified as of October 2026. This page is for information and advocacy and is not legal advice. Laws change: check the official text before relying on it. Part of the DƆNÙESÈ Data Center of the Women Leaders Network for Development (RFLD). See also the Maputo Protocol Hub and the Maputo Barometer.
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